Beef and Soy Flour Frozen Meat Mix

Meat Extenders

Meat extenders and binders are a large class of nonmeat ingredients, which include soy flour, soy protein isolates, nonfat dry milk, dried whey, reduced lactose whey, whey protein concentrate, sodium caseinate, wheat gluten, cereal flours, and tapioca dextrin.

From: The Science of Animal Growth and Meat Technology (Second Edition) , 2019

Extrusion cooking

P.J. Fellows , in Food Processing Technology (Fourth Edition), 2017

17.3.3.1 Texturised vegetable protein (TVP)

Meat extenders and meat analogues are produced by extrusion of vegetable proteins, resulting in products that have an appearance and texture similar to the fibrilar structure of meat ( Strahm, 2006). Meat extenders are made from defatted soy flour and soy protein concentrate, extruded at low moisture contents (20–35%), whereas meat analogues are obtained by extrusion at high moisture contents (50–70%) of soy protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, legume proteins including common beans and peas, or wheat proteins. Extrusion cooking destroys the enzymes present in soybeans, including a urease that reduces the shelf-life, a lipoxidase that causes off-flavours by oxidation of soya oil and also a trypsin inhibitor that reduces protein digestibility. This improves the acceptability, digestibility and shelf-life of the product. The soy flour, concentrate, or isolate are moistened and the pH is adjusted. A lower pH (5.5) increases chewiness in the final product, whereas a higher pH (8.5) produces a tender product and more rapid rehydration. Colours, flavours and calcium chloride firming agent are added, and the material is plasticised in an extruder at 60–104°C. It is then extruded to form expanded texturised strands, which are cooled and dried to 6–8% moisture content. Details of the production of different texturised soya products are given by Orcutt et al. (2005) and extrusion of legume flours is described by Berrios (2011).

The proteins in soy concentrates and soy protein isolate bind and hold natural flavours and moisture, they emulsify and hydrate meat products to make them juicer and improve their flavour, colour, texture, shelf-life and yield. They can also be used to reduce the fat content in sausages, luncheon meats and frankfurters. Textured soy protein ingredients have also been used as seafood extenders, including surimi products, where the water-binding and -holding capacity of soy concentrates is of use. Further information is given by Bhat and Bhat (2011).

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Soy Protein Processing and Utilization

Edmund W. Lusas , Khee Choon Rhee , in Practical Handbook of Soybean Processing and Utilization, 1995

Extruder-Texturized Products

The meatlike appearance in spun protein isolates results from strands of parallel fibers, but in extruded soy flours, concentrates, and isolates it is created from multilaminate palisade layers. The meatlike appearance of extruder-texturized proteins is readily acceptable to the public, as demonstrated by their essentially complete replacement of spun products. Extrusion texturization also has the advantages of being a less complicated process and of being able to texturize lower-cost ingredients, including soy flours and soy protein concentrates. A relatively small extruder-texturized soy protein isolate industry exists in the United States and sells its products in frozen form.

The principles of extrusion have been described by Mercier et al. (81) and the processing of proteins by Stanley (82) and Rokey et al. (83). "Texturized Vegetable Protein" and "TVP" are registered trademarks of the Archer Daniels Midland Company, Decatur, IL, and the generic terms "texturized soy protein," "TSP," or "texturized vegetable food protein" are used. Two types of products are made:

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Extrusion-cooked meat extenders , which are made from soy flour or flakes or soy concentrates and are rehydrated to 60 to 65% moisture before blending with meats or meat emulsions at levels of 20 to 30%

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Extrusion-cooked meat analogs, which have similar appearances but are intended solely for use in meatless products.

The extrusion process restructures protein-based foodstuffs by applying mechanical and thermal energy, causing the macromolecules to lose their native, organized structure and form a continuous viscoelastic mass (or "melt"). The extruder barrel, screws, and die then work to align the molecules in the direction of flow, exposing bonding sites that cross-link into a reformed, expandable structure that creates a chewy texture in fabricated foods. In addition to restructuring vegetable food proteins, extrusion cooking (77) does the following:

1.

Denatures proteins, lowers solubility, improves digestibility, and destroys biologically active enzymes and toxic proteins

2.

Inactivates residual heat-labile growth inhibitors native to many vegetable proteins in raw or partially processed states

3.

Prevents development of raw or bitter flavors commonly associated with many vegetable food sources

4.

Creates a homogeneous, irreversible, bonded dispersion of all microingredients in a protein matrix

5.

Shapes and sizes the final product into desirable portions for packaging and sales.

An extrusion system consists of several important subsystems:

1.

A feed delivery and proportioning system

2.

A preconditioning area, which enables the raw materials to equilibrate in moisture content and heat

3.

The cooking extruder itself

4.

A laminar-flow area or die that allows aligning of molecules to occur

5.

A die and cutter to shape and cut the product into pieces

6.

A dryer/cooler to reduce moisture in the final product to a microbiologically stable level.

Barrels and screws have evolved over the years into increasingly efficient designs. The recently introduced twin-screw extruders cost more to acquire per unit of throughput capacity, but they provide nonpulsating discharge and a steady operation (80). A single-screw extruder, as used for making texturized soy protein, is shown in Fig. 8.20, and a flow sheet of a production line using a twin-screw extruder in Fig. 8.21.

Fig. 8.20. Single-screw extruder used for making full-fat flours and texturized soy flours and concentrates.

Courtesy of Wenger Manufacturing Company, Sebetha, KS.

Fig. 8.21. Flow sheet of process for making texturized vegetable food protein.

Courtesy of Wenger Manufacturing Company, Sebetha, KS.

The general parameters for raw ingredient specifications for texturized flours and concentrates include

PDI range: 80 to 20

Fat level: 0.5 to 6.5%

Fiber levels: up to 7%

Particle size: up to U.S. No. 8 mesh

Perhaps the most exciting development in extruder operations in recent years has been the ability to induce additional shear and to laminate low-NSI proteins that were once considered untexturizable (80).

A variety of texturized soy food proteins is available from manufacturers, including products made from soy flour or concentrate, colored and sized to different specifications. The volatile constituents are customarily added after extrusion by one of several enrobing processes. Specifically fortified products are available for use in school lunch and child feeding programs and in military feeding applications.

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Texturized soy protein as an ingredient

M.N. Riaz , in Proteins in Food Processing, 2004

22.5 Effect of additives on texturized vegetable protein

The additions of minor ingredients or chemicals are often used to increase the range of raw ingredients suitable for production of a specific texturized vegetable protein product. It is important to understand the effects of these additives on the texturization of vegetable protein, since these ingredients can improve the final texture and aid in texturization. Some of these additives are food flavor, color, pH modifier, surface active substrates, emulsifiers, wheat gluten and surfactants. These additives can be used to assist the food scientists in controlling the functional properties, structures, mouthfeel and/or density of the processed material. With the addition of minor ingredients or chemical adjustment of the texturized vegetable protein, the raw material can enhance various aspects of the finished product and lessen the specification constraints of some of the raw material (Strahm, 2002).

22.5.1 Texture enhancers and extrusion stabilizers

Several additives are commonly used to enhance the textural integrity of extruded proteins and to stabilize the processing of vegetable proteins.

Color enhancers

When supplementing light-colored meats with meat extenders made from texturized vegetable proteins, it is desirable to bleach or lighten the color of the meat extender. Bleaching agents such as hydrogen peroxide are often used for this purpose. Dosing levels for hydrogen peroxide range from 0.25 to 0.5%. Pigments such as titanium dioxide are also used at levels between 0.5 to 0.75% to lighten color, but at increased levels, pigments will weaken the textural properties of extruded vegetable proteins.

Calcium chloride (CaCl)

Increased textural integrity and smooth product surfaces are the result of incorporating calcium chloride into a texturized vegetable protein product. Dosing levels for CaCl range between 0.5 to 2.0%. With the addition of CaCl and small amounts of sulfur, soybean meal containing 7.0% fiber may be texturized, retorted for one hour at 110   °C, and still maintain a strong meat-like texture.

Lecithin

Soy lecithin added to formulations of vegetable proteins at levels up to 0.4% tends to assist in a smooth laminar flow in the extruder barrel and die which permits production of increased density soy products. The ability to make dense vegetable protein products is related to the higher degree of cross-linking occurring during the extrusion process.

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

The addition of sodium chloride does not appear to benefit the texture of extruded vegetable proteins. If anything, it tends to weaken textural strength.

Sodium alginate

Addition of sodium alginate increases chewiness, water-holding capacity and density of extruded protein products.

Sugar

Sugar tends to disrupt the textural development of soy proteins.

Sulfur

Known for its ability to aid in the cleavage of disulfide bonding, sulfur assists the unraveling of long twisted protein molecules. This reaction with the protein molecules causes increased expansion, smooth product surface and additional stability to the extrusion process. These benefits however, are not without some undesirable side effects including off flavors and aroma. Normal dosing levels for sulfur or sulfur derivatives are in the 0.01 to 0.2% range.

pH adjustment

Increasing the pH of vegetable proteins before or during the extrusion process aids in the texturization of the protein. Extreme increases in pH increases the solubility and decreases the textural integrity of the final product. Processing at pH 8.0 may also result in the production of harmful lysinoalanines. Lowering the pH has the opposite effect, and decreasing protein solubility makes the protein more difficult to process. Undesirable sour flavors in texturized vegetable protein products may be evident if the pH is adjusted below pH 5.0 (Strahm, 2003).

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Texturized vegetable proteins

M.N. Riaz , in Handbook of Food Proteins, 2011

15.4.3 Peanuts

Defatted peanut flour has been texturized to produce meat extenders with good taste but poor color qualities compared to soy-based extenders. The Food Protein Research and Development Center at Texas A&M University has done work on texturization of partially defatted peanut flour ( Riaz, et al., 2005). Partially defatted peanut flour can be produced using the concept mentioned above (for mechanically defatted soy flour). Defatted peanut flour is available in the market, but it is costly, so making a texturized vegetable protein commercially is not economical.

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Potential applications of microalgae-derived proteins and peptides in the food industry

Caleb Acquah , ... Chibuike C. Udenigwe , in Cultured Microalgae for the Food Industry, 2021

4.4.5 Fat absorption

Fat absorption capacity is an essential functional property in food products such as meat extenders or replacements, mainly because it promotes flavor retention and mouthfeel. The fat absorption capacity of Arthrospira platensis protein isolate (up to 252.7±9.9   g of oil per 100   g) was found to be higher than that of soy protein (Kinsella, 1979). This high oil-binding ability could be because of the exposed nonpolar side chain residues associated with the proteins. In addition, physical pretreatment can contribute to improving the fat absorption capacity of the proteins. For instance, the fat absorption capacity value obtained for Spirulina powder (2.3   ml H₂O   g⁻¹) was slightly higher than the value obtained by Devi and Venkataraman (1984) due to the influence of ultrasound treatment. The process may have broken noncovalent interactions, thereby exposing the hydrophobic regions of the proteins for enhanced fat binding. Detailed studies on isolated or purified microalgae proteins are needed to assess their potential use as functional ingredients in food products.

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Extrusion Texturized Dairy Proteins

Charles I. Onwulata , ... Phoebe X. Qi , in Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, 2011

B Meat analogs and extenders

Walsh and coworkers at Utah State University have shown that TWP have use as meat analogs and extenders. In one experiment, they texturized WPC by thermoplastic extrusion, rehydrated the fragments, and bound them into patties with wheat gluten, dehydrated egg whites, and xanthan gum (Taylor and Walsh, 2002). They obtained a cohesive patty that withstood baking, freezing, and microwave heating. Sensory analysis revealed that patties containing TWP were as acceptable as commercial soy patties. This group also changed the pH during extrusion and added calcium to the WPC/starch mix before extrusion to obtain extrudates with similar water holding capacity and water soluble protein levels as a mix that was not extruded (Hale et al., 2002). Consumer panels liked beef patties made with ≤   40% TWP as much as 100% beef patties in flavor, juiciness, tenderness, texture, and overall acceptability. They also found that beef patties formulated with ≤   40% TWP had higher cook yield and less size reduction than 100% beef patties.

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CHOICE OF FOODS TO SHORTEN FOOD CHAINS IN INDIA

A.R. Rao , I.J. Singh , in Agriculture and Energy, 1977

MEAT SUBSTITUTES

Successful substitutes for meat have been made from soybeans [14 ]. Cheaper substitutes are used as meat extenders in dishes using chopped meat. The most expensive derivatives of soybean are converted into beef-like preparations. These are good substitutes that have much more protein (45%–70%) than natural meats (8%–18%), are equally tasty and acceptable, and are equal in price [ 37]. In the last two years, textured soy products which may substitute for panir (cottage cheese) or meat have been made in India.

The importance of these substitutes for India lies in avoiding the huge losses of nutrients during conversion to meat in animals. Vegetarians could also consume these products just as they are now consuming "vegetarian" eggs.

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Oat Utilization: Past, Present, and Future

F.H. Webster , in Oats (Second Edition), 2011

OTHER FOOD APPLICATIONS

Oatmeal or oat flour is a major constituent of granola bars and "natural cereal" products. Rolled oats can be used to thicken soups, gravies, and sauces; in pancakes; as a meat extender in meat loaf and meat patties; and in many home-cooked baked goods. In South America, oat flour is the base for frescavena, a beverage product, and soups. Specialty flours have been developed that can stabilize dispersions or add viscosity to a wide range of food products (Shukla 1975). Webster (1983) proposed that oats could be used as a main-meal side dish. Several preliminary reports have been published on new oat product applications. These include oat milk (Lindahl et al 1997, Önning et al 1998, Chronakis et al 2004), oat ice cream, oat pancake mix, meal replacement drinks (Mikola 2004), and a yogurtlike oat bran porridge (called Yosa) fermented with lactic acid bacteria (Salovaara and Kurka 1993, Salovaara 1997, Mårtensson et al 2001, Salovaara and Simonson 2004). Wang (2008) patented a process for preparing pasta that contains at least 50% oat flour. In Asia, savory side dishes are prepared using oat flakes in combination with meat and vegetables. In China, hulless oats have been utilized to make oat noodles and a traditional oat food called kaonao (see Chapter 3). A processing plant is being built in China to produce a fermented oat drink based upon Norwegian technology (Chapter 3). Wilhelmson et al (2001) developed a short-term germination process to produce a germinated oat that preserves the β-glucan content with a minimum reduction in molecular weight (M _w >1.5 × 10⁶). For additional insights on germinated oat products, refer to the work of Peterson (1998), Heiniö et al (2001), and Salmenkallio-Marttila et al (2004). Oats have also been used in alcoholic fermentations. Several U.K. distilleries utilize oats in their fermentation mashes. Most notably, Irish whiskey is fermented from a barley and malt mixture containing 5% oats (Court and Broowers 1970). Both malted and unmalted oats have been used in brewing processes (Hopkins 1943, Maiden 1975). A brewery in China produces an oat-rice beer that reportedly has sensory characteristics similar to those of North American beers.

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Scientific modeling of blended meat products

R.A. LaBudde , T.C. Lanier , in Processed Meats, 2011

8.1.1 Requirement-oriented formulation

The requirements for an acceptable formulated product derive from various sources. These include governmental regulations, safety, sensory qualities, producibility, logistics and cost. Governmental regulations apply in detail in many ways to formulation:

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nutritional content and claims;

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order of predominance labeling;

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use of non-meat extenders (proteinaceous), binders and fillers;

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control of crude chemistry (fat, moisture, protein); and

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control of additive use (e.g., nitrite, erythorbate, phosphates).

Food safety is influenced by formulation by: (a) levels of key ingredients added specifically or partially for anti-microbial effect (salts, nitrite, essential oils, lactates, acetates, etc.); (b) non-inclusion of unlabeled allergens; and (c) impact of formula upon the ability to achieve lethality in processing (cf. 'producibility' below). Sensory qualities include internal color, external color, gel strength (e.g., peak stress or force to failure at fixed deformation rate), gel ductility (e.g., peak strain or deformation to failure at fixed deformation rate), saltiness, sweetness, pepperiness (heat), meatiness (meat flavor), juiciness and other flavor notes.

Producibility requirements relate to the ability to make a particular meat product consistently, reliably and efficiently in practice. Such requirements include:

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emulsion stability prior to gelation ('cooking');

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smoke acceptance;

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product strength (gel strength generally, peelability, sliceability);

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dimensional stability (non-bloating);

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syneresis stability (post-packaging exudate); and

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shelf-life stability.

Logistical requirements involve making sure that particular ingredients and lots of ingredients are selected from those expected to be available at the time of production.

Finally, cost has played, and will continue to play for some time to come, a critical role in the acceptability of processed meat products to institutional customers and to consumers. The meat industry remains highly competitive, with a plethora of processors soliciting the business of a limited number of key customers. Cost determines profit in a competitive environment where sales prices and order volumes are fixed.

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Volume 3

Mohammed Shafiq Alam , Raouf Aslam , in Innovative Food Processing Technologies, 2021

3.02.4.2.3 Texturized Vegetable Protein

TVPs are becoming an important source of high-density plant-based proteins, especially for vegetarian people. TVPs are made by restructuring protein molecules, usually soy protein, into a cross-linked, layered mass whose structure resists deformation upon application of heat or further processing. They can be of two types: extrusion cooked meat analogs and meat extenders ( Alam et al., 2016). Barrel temperature is one of the most critical factors for texturization of plant proteins. Areas (1992) reported that a proportional decrease in disulfide linkages in soy protein isolates was observed when temperature was increased from 140°C to 180°C, while temperatures less than 90°C are not favorable for expansion and layer formation (Cheftel et al., 1992). TVPs have also been used as animal feed due to their nutritional quality and ease of processing. Perilla et al. (1997) extruded poultry diets from full-fat soybeans at 122°C and 126°C, which led to maximum growth in broiler chickens, whereas diets extruded at 118°C and 120°C resulted in significantly lower body weights. Cheftel et al. (1992) also derived nutrient-rich fat analogs from whey protein isolates and cheese analogs from caseinate and butter oil. In another study, protein-rich puffed snacks were made from cornmeal using a twin-screw extruder (Onwulata et al., 2010). Whey protein isolate was texturized to minimize the water-binding property of dairy proteins and nonfat dried milk. Moreover, the protein quality of texturized whey protein isolate remain unaffected with the change in moisture content.

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